नेपालमा लेखा र लेखा प्रणालीको विकासक्रम (Government Accounting Sytem)

The government accounting system largely depends upon the volume of financial transactions and the rules and provisions of the government. In the Nepalese context, in the past, there were not many financial transactions and the government was not accountable to the people to show the position of public funds.

Government accounting in Nepal can be traced back to the Lichhavi period. It was first introduced in Nepal in the Lichhavi period to record the revenues and expenditures of the government. In the Lichhavi period, there was a certain form of accounting to record financial transactions. In this period government revenues were collected from trust, tax, and custom duty and expenditures were made for war, renovation, and construction of temples. When trade and industry further developed in the Malla period, the sources of government revenue were increased. The revenues were collected from trust, tax, customs, and trade. The expenditures were made for war, renovation, and construction of temples. The accounting system remained in the same state as in the Lichhavi period. When the number of financial transactions increased during the Shah Period, it was necessary to originate the systematic accounting system. As a result, in 1871 B.S, a book called Laldhadda was introduced to record revenues and administrative expenses of the government. In 1879, another book of accounts was introduced for recording details about the land and its revenues. These two books of accounts were important steps in the history of accounting in Nepal.

After a long gap, an office Kitabkhana was established in 1925 B.S. for recording the salary paid to the employees of government offices, which is still in practice. In 1936 B.S., an important contribution was made by Kharidar Gunawanta, a senior professional who propounded Syaha Sresta Pranali which was used to present a real picture of government revenues and expenditures. After the restoration of democracy in 2007 B.S., the government became more responsible towards the people and financial administration. As a result, the budgeting system was started in 2008 B.S. Under the constitution of 2015 B. S. of Nepal, on 2016 Ashadh 16, the Auditor General was appointed as the constitutional body. In the Nepalese context, in the past, there were not many financial transactions and the government was not accountable to the people to show the position of public funds. Government accounting in Nepal can be traced back to the Lichhavi period. It was first introduced in Nepal in the Lichhavi period to record the revenues and expenditures of the government. In the Lichhavi period, there was a certain form of accounting to record financial transactions. In this period government revenues were collected from trust, tax, and custom duty and expenditures were made for war, renovation, and construction of temples. When trade and industry further developed in the Malla period, the sources of government revenue were increased. The revenues were collected from trust, tax, customs, and trade. The expenditures were made for war, renovation, and construction of temples. The accounting system remained in the same state as in the Lichhavi period. When the number of financial transactions increased in the Shah Period, it was necessary to originate the systematic accounting system. As a result, in 1871 B.S, a book called Laldhadda was introduced to record revenues and administrative expenses of the government. In 1879, another book of accounts was introduced for recording details about the land and its revenues. These two books of accounts were important steps in the history of accounting in Nepal. After a long gap, an office Kitabkhana was established in 1925 B.S. for recording the salary paid to the employees of government offices, which is still in practice. In 1936 B.S., an important contribution was made by Kharidar Gunawanta, a senior professional who propounded Syaha Sresta Pranali which was used to present a real picture of government revenues and expenditures. After the restoration of democracy in 2007 B.S., the government became more responsible towards the people and financial administration. As a result, the budgeting system was started in 2008 B.S. Under the constitution of 2015 B. S. of Nepal, on 2016 Ashadh 16, the Auditor General was appointed as a constitutional body.

The main objective of the appointment of the Auditor General was to maintain systematic accounting and avoid fraud and misappropriation of government funds. To maintain uniformity in financial administration Procedural rule for government fund expenditure in 2016 was passed and enacted in 2016 B.S. As a result, Bhuktani Sresta Pranali was introduced in 2017 B.S. Bhuktani Sresta Pranali also became unsuitable and unable to maintain the systematic record of revenues and expenditures of government offices. As a result, the new accounting system based on a double-entry bookkeeping system was introduced in 2018 B.S. It has a systematic and scientific system that has been followed by the government of Nepal since the fiscal year 2019/20 B.S. and it is still in practice in Nepalese government offices.

Types of Accounting Systems used in Nepal

There were various types of accounting systems used in Nepal before introducing the New Accounting System. Some of the accounting systems used in Nepal were as follows:

Wasil Banki Sresta Pranali: Wasil Banki Sresta Pranali was a simple statement based on a single entry system, which was used to record revenues and expenditures of government offices. It was used to record incomes on one page and expenditures on other pages. The accounts were closed at the end of the fiscal year or after the completion of the job. This system was unscientific and impracticable because financial transactions were not classified and analyzed into different heads.

Syaha Sresta Pranali: In the process of historical development of the government accounting system in Nepal, Syaha Sresta Pranali was introduced by Kharidar Gunwanta in 1936 B.S. It was in practice up to 2022/023 B.S. This system was more scientific than Wasil Banki Sresta Pranali. Various types of books, that were used under Syaha Sresta Pranali, are as follows:

Syaha: Syaha was the primary record of financial transactions like journal vouchers. It was used as the first step by Syaha Sresta Pranali to record the incomes and expenditures of government offices. Syaha was prepared in a shape by providing a number of columns for incomes and expenses. A leaf was folded into different creases according to the requirement. It was divided into two parts. The right-hand side was used to record expenditures and the left-hand side was used to record incomes. Nagadi, Jinsi, and Dharauti Syaha were used in practice.

Awarje: Awarje was familiar with the ledger. It was to keep the record of financial transactions in a classified manner according to the heads of income and expenditures. It facilitated the similar nature of transactions under a single heading.

Dhapot: Dhapot was a final statement, which was used to report revenues and expenses in summary form to present the real position of the public fund on a given date. It was similar to the balance sheet.

Form Sresta Pranali: When the number of financial transactions of the government offices became voluminous, Syaha Sresta Pranali became unable to fulfill the requirement. As a result, Form Sresta Pranali was introduced in 1968 BS especially to record the land revenue of Terai and the city area of the Kingdom of Nepal. Different types of 51 forms were used in practice to record the financial transactions and hence it was called Form Sresta Pranali.

Bhuktani Sresta Pranali: Bhuktani Sresta Pranali was developed in 2017 B.S. to maintain the systematic record of revenues and expenditure of government offices according to the budget heads. It was based on a double-entry bookkeeping system, which classified the government offices into the central level and operating level for the systematic recording of public funds.

sources:kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/538

 SOIL EROSION IN NEPAL: A SEVERE PROBLEM WITH MANY CAUSES

29 Oct 2022

 

Nepal is vulnerable to soil erosion for a number of reasons. First, the country is located in a region of high rainfall and severe floods, which can lead to massive amounts of soil being washed away. Second, the Himalayan mountains are constantly eroding, and the resulting sediment is often deposited in Nepal, leading to further soil loss. Third, deforestation is a major problem in Nepal, and the loss of trees can lead to increased soil erosion. Finally, the country’s steep topography makes it particularly vulnerable to landslides, which can also cause extensive soil loss.

Mulching, cover cropping, contour farming, strip crop, and conservation agriculture practices are examples of erosion-resistant strategies. Land degradation is a major policy concern in Nepal, with three- and five-year plans in place.

In Nepal, 40% of soils have low organic matter (OM), 23% have low phosphorus (P), 18% have low potassium (K), and 67% have acidic soils, according to 15.

It is a very specialized field of research in Nepal. There are several types of soil discovered in Nepal so far, including alluvial soils, lacustrine soils, rocky soils, and mountain soils. The Terai region is home to a variety of alluvial soils, while the river basins are home to a variety of alluvial soils. This alluvial soil is extremely fertile in nature because it is made up of materials deposited by rivers.

Deforestation of agriculture is the most common cause of soil erosion. Due to a growing population, as well as increasing demand for commodities such as coffee, soybean, palm oil, and wheat, agricultural land is being cleared.

What Makes Fields Vulnerable To Soil Erosion?

Credit: Blue & Green Tomorrow

There are many factors that can make fields vulnerable to soil erosion. One is the type of soil present. Soils that are high in clay content are more likely to erode than those that are sandier. Another factor is the amount of vegetation present. Fields that are heavily forested are less likely to experience erosion than those that have been cleared of trees and other plants. Finally, the slope of the land is also a factor. Steep slopes are more likely to experience erosion than those that are more gradual.

The process of soil erosion affects all landforms. It is common for erosion to be gradual and undetected, or to become severe at an alarming rate. This Fact sheet describes the causes and effects of wind and water erosion on agricultural land. The ability of a soil to resist erosion, in other words, how well a soil can resist erosion based on its physical characteristics. Sand, sandy loam, and very fine sand soils, as well as silt and fine sand, are less porous to erosion. Surface water runoff occurs when there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed by the soil. Consolidating small fields into larger ones can result in longer slope lengths with more erosion potential.

If the soil lacks or very little vegetative cover for plants or crop residues, it is more likely to erode. Raindrop impact and splash are avoided by covering the soil with plants and residue, which slows the flow of runoff water. To explain how soil moves in raindrop splash and runoff water, we use the term sheeter erosion. There may be erosion at the bottom of a slope or in low-lying areas. Dillingering rill erosion, also known as gabion erosion, is an advanced stage of erosion where channel surfaces erode. Each year, many Ontario farms lose a lot of topsoil and subsoil as a result of gully erosion. It refers to the process of undercutting, scouring, and slumping natural drainageways over time.

Problems with bank erosion can occur due to a variety of factors, including poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance, livestock access and crop spacing that is too close to a bank. Bank erosion is the direct cause of loss of productive farmland, undermining of structures, and the removal of lanes, roads, and fence rows. It is common for wind to blow through long, unsheltered, smooth soil surfaces. The movement of soil particles is determined by their size as well as the strength of the wind, which influences suspension, saltation, and surface creep. Wind can propel soil particles through a lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue). In general, hill country and knolls are the most exposed areas. Arable land is frequently demineralized and thus cannot provide food for the growing plants.

A cover crop with an adequate network of living windbreaks is the most effective vegetative cover. This is accomplished in conjunction with good management of residue and good crop selection. The process of moving soil from one location to another via a downslope is referred to as upslope erosion. The rate and magnitude of soil erosion caused by tillage are determined by a number of factors. Lifting and moving equipment, on the other hand, tends to move more dirt. Deep tilling disturbs a larger area of the soil, while faster tilling moves it further. When changing crop rotation or adjusting tillage practices will not be enough to stop erosion on a field, it may be necessary to implement a combination of measures or take drastic action. The plowing of contour areas, strip-cropping, and terracing are examples of these. Structural controls must be included as part of the overall solution if the situation is more serious.

Global soil erosion is a problem that affects all countries. The process takes place in the natural world, in the form of water, ice, wind, and gravity. Archaeologists believe that soil erosion has caused the loss of fertile land to floods and water pollution, among other things. Furthermore, soil erosion degrades ecosystem functions, increases hydrogeological risk factors such as landslides and floods, exacerbates biodiversity loss, harms urban infrastructure, and, in some cases, displaces people. Water, ice, wind, and gravity are the most common causes of soil erosion, and these are all equally destructive. The consequences of soil erosion are global, and they affect all humans. Agricultural productivity is reduced, ecosystem functions are degraded, hydrogeological risk increases, biodiversity loss occurs, urban infrastructure is damaged, and human populations are displaced as a result of soil erosion. The problem of soil erosion is a global issue that must be addressed in order to improve the quality of life for all.

The Most Common Causes Of Field Erosion

The erosion of fields can result in a variety of issues for farmers, including the loss of topsoil, erosion of water resources, and the introduction of harmful pollutants into the environment.
A recent study found that heavy rain is the most common cause of soil erosion in the United States. Aside from poor geography, deforestation, and drought, a number of other factors contribute to soil erosion.
The survey respondents were asked to rate the most important causes of soil erosion on a scale of 1 to 5 based on the importance of the issue. Heavy rains are thought to be the most frequently caused by erosion.
The soil that has the most medium (silt)-sized particles is most at risk of erosion. When soils are clay or sandy, erosion is less likely. The combined length, grade, and quality of the ground (rough or smooth) all contribute to erodibility.
Farmers may encounter a variety of issues as a result of erosion. Topsoil loss can result in the erosion of water resources and the introduction of harmful pollutants to the environment. Farmers can take steps to avoid soil erosion by becoming better acquainted with the causes.

 

How Is The Status Of Nepal In Soil Erosion?

Source: MDPI

Nepal’s situation is even worse because two-thirds of its total land area is highly fragile and prone to soil erosion. Topsoil loss from sloping terraces has been reported to be as high as 87 tonnes per hectare per year. When the topsoil is lost, the bottom is also destroyed.

Our economy and environment rely heavily on soil. Alluvial soil, sandy gravel soil, lacustrine soil, rocky soil, mountain soil, and peaty or marsh soil are just a few examples of soil types. It can be found in Tarai and river basins. It is well suited to supporting large numbers of people because it is fertile. The soil of India is divided into eight deposits. The following categories describe soils: alluvial, black, red, laterite, desert or arid, forest, mountain, peaty, or marsh, and saline or alkaline. These soils were formed by the sediments that were deposited by the rivers. Their range of chemical properties is also impressive.

Soil Erosion In Nepal

One of the country’s most pressing environmental and development concerns is soil erosion. In Nepal, a large amount of rainfall causes soil erosion, with the loss of soil and its ability to retain water being the main cause of this. The Middle Mountains have historically been the most vulnerable region to water erosion due to steep topography, anomalous climatic conditions, and intensive human activity. In order to address soil erosion, the Nepalese government has enacted a number of policies and initiatives, including the 1996 Soil Erosion Control Act, which establishes a government agency to address soil erosion; and the 2006 Soil Conservation and Development Authority (SCDA) Act, which establishes a government agency to address Furthermore, the government has implemented a number of soil erosion control projects, including the Soil Conservation and Development Project of the Department of Agriculture, the Watershed Development Project of the Department of Forests, and the Forest Development Project of the Department of Livestock. Despite the country’s efforts, soil erosion remains a significant problem, and the government must continue enacting and implementing policies and projects to address it.

What Region Of Nepal Is Soil Erosion?

Credit: pathshalanepal.com

Because of the fragile geology of Nepal’s Middle Mountains, steep topography, unusually anomalous climatic conditions, and intensive human activity, the Middle Mountains have become one of the country’s most vulnerable regions to water erosion.

Terai is an important region in Nepal because of its fertile soil and its ability to improve the country’s agricultural and water resources. The Terai region is characterized by alluvial and coarse-textured soil, with a decrease in the Terai and hill area’s forest cover between 1978 and 1979, as well as a decrease between 1990 and 1991. When water or wind hits the soil, it softens and removes soil particles, causing it to deteriorate. The erosion and surface runoff of soils have caused severe problems in the world, as erosion and surface runoff degrade soils and cause water quality problems. The Terai region of Nepal is a fertile region, but it is also prone to erosion and degradation. The region is in danger of being harmed by water and wind, and the government must work to protect it.

ABOUT AUTHOR / Kathleen

 

 Periodic plan of Nepal

First started in BS 2013 (1956 AD) (Tanka Prasad Acharya) - Prime minister

Date in BS	Plan
2013-2018(1956-1961)	First five-year plan
2018-2019(61-62)	No Plan
2019-2022	Second three plan
2022-2027	Third five-year plan
2027-2032	Fourth five-year plan
2032-2037	Fifth five-year plan
2037-2042	Sixth five-year plan
2042-2047	Seventh five-year plan
2047-2049	No plan
2049-2054	Eight five-year plan
2054-2059	Ninth five-year plan
2059-2064	10th five year plan
2064-2067	11th third year plan
2067-2070	12th  third year plan
2070-2073	13th  third year plan
2073-2076	14th third year plan
2076-2081	15th five year plan

 

No plan -2018-2019, 2047-2049

Third year plan – 2, 11, 12, 13, 14-15

2^nd – 2019 to 2022

11^th – 2064 to 2067

12^th – 2067-70

13^th – 70-73

14^th – 73-76

2076-2081

15th five- year plan

 

15^th five year plan

2076-2081 (2019-2024)

National vision –Prosperous Nepal, Happy Nepali

Priority

1. Agriculture

2. Construction

3. Manufacturing

4. Education and health

5. Electricity generation

INDICATORS	TARGET (14th Plan )	ACHIEVEMENT (14th plan)	TARGET 15th  plan	Target 2100

 

 

 Soil Temperature Management

Use of organic and synthetic mulches: Mulches keep soil cooler in hot summer and warm in cool winter.

Soil water management: High moisture content in humid temperate region lowers soil temperature.

Tillage management: Tilling soil to break the natural structure reduces the heat conductance and heat loss. A highly compact soil looses heat faster than

Management of Soil Temperature

Two approaches:

a) Practices that cover or mulch soil

Mulches buffer extremes in soil temperature

Mulches are important for temperate and tropical environments.

b) Practices that reduce excess soil moisture.

Poorly drained soils in temperate regions have been found to be about 5 deg. C cooler than comparable well drained soils.

Removing water alleviates temperature depression. Use drainage systems Use ridge tillage systems.

 

Terracing (traditional ways of controlling soil erosion)

The traditional farming practices employed on steepy sloping land in mid-hills led to soil and water erosion and low crop and fodder yields. The People started work to identify and test an integrated approach for addressing these constraints. The approach taken was an improved hill terrace for rainfed conditions consisting of structural and vegetative measures.

In Nepal, we see the hills and mountains carved into terraces all throughout right from the ancient past. Our ancestors learned the necessity of saving soil from erosion long before modern agriculture developed such practices. They learned this as an art and it became part of our culture. The people of Nepal truly love their land, where families have held fast to the land for generations.

Terraces are level or gently sloping platforms constructed across the slope and supported either by mechanical (such as retaining walls) or vegetative barriers and designed to make the land suitable for cultivation and prevent accelerated erosion. 

The objective of terracing is:

·         To reduce run-off and retard soil erosion.

·         To make sloping operations possible and safe on slope land.

Thus, the objective of terracing is to use sloping lands more intensively without causing soil erosion that would otherwise be possible. The objective is achieved by: ·

·         Decreasing the length of slope over which the surface water runs,

·         Intercepting the run-off before much of it can accumulate and carry it to the safe outlet.

Types of Terraces

Bench Terrace

Bench Terrace is the oldest terrace. For several thousand years, bench terraces have been widely adopted over the world, particularly in Europe and Asia. The bench terrace is built by placing a wall of earth or stone along the contour and either filling the space above this wall or allowing it to be filled by erosion. They are in a series of level or nearly level strips across the slope supported by steep risers. The risers are usually protected by grasses. Erosion remains a serious problem, especially if the risers are not stabilized and run-off water is allowed to concentrate. The risers should be planted with deep-rooted grass to hold it in and prevent erosion. The bench or floor of the reverse sloped terrace (inward sloped terrace) should be placed inward towards the toe. The excess rainfall will flow towards the toe and be carried off in a small ditch to a safe outlet. 

Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT)(Modern ways of controlling soil erosion)

A common problem in sloping agricultural land 

Degradation of land 

Topsoil erosion leading to nutrient loss

Decreasing crop yield 

Increasing food insecurity 

History

This technology originated in the Philippines as a result of problems faced by upland farmers of Davao del Sur, Mindanao Island. The major problem faced by these farmers was low and gradually declining farm income. Studies suggest that in just 10 years, the maize yield declined from 3.5 t/ha to 0.5 t/ha. The same scenario was observed among other crops. The yield of many crops has declined by 60 to 80 percent within a short period of time. Due to this low and declining farm income, farmers have to search for efficient alternatives. So, some farmers started to cultivate permanent crops. However, in these crops yield was also low. Later after several studies, it was known that the loss of soil and nutrients from the soil was the major reason behind the declining yield of the crops. Also, farmers were in search of better distribution of crops that would supply produce and income throughout the year as their traditional farming is able to supply yield and income in seasons only. They have to face the problem of hunger and money during the off-season.

The Asian Rural Life Development Foundation (ARLDF) working for the holistic development of farming communities in hilly areas felt the problems faced by the farmers and worked several years to develop technology that could minimize the soil loss and increase productivity by improving soil fertility. Later in 1971, they conceptualised the new farming technology which is named Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT).

INTRODUCTION OF SALT

Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT), otherwise known as contour hedgerow intercropping (agroforestry) technology (CHIAT), is a system in which dense hedgerows of fast-growing perennial nitrogen-fixing tree or shrub species are planted along contour lines thus creating a living barrier that traps sediments and gradually transforms the sloping land to terraced land. The nitrogen-fixing hedgerows lining the terrace help improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation at the roots and incorporation of the hedgerow trimmings into the soil. The hedgerows both markedly reduce soil erosion and contribute to improving and/or maintaining soil fertility The Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC) is a small, Church-related non-government organization with a 19-hectare demonstration farm located in the rolling foothills of Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines internationally known by the name of its sister affiliate Asian Rural Life Development Foundation (ARLDF). It has emphasized upland development since it began in 1971. The technology was verified in 1978, on a marginal site in Kinua Kusan Mindanao Island, in the Philippines. In Nepal, it was introduced in the Himalayan region by ICIMOD in 1992.

Characteristics Of SALT

The SALT system must;

•Adequately control soil erosion,

•Help restore soil structure and fertility

• Be efficient in food crop production,

• Be applicable to at least 50 percent of hillside farms,

•Be easily duplicated by upland farmers with the use of local resources and preferably without making loans,

•It must be culturally acceptable,

•Have the small farmer as the focus and food production as the top priority,

•Be workable in a relatively short time,

•Require minimal labor, and be economically feasible

•It is easily replicable.

•It is ecologically sound

•Fast-growing nitrogen-fixing trees are grown along the contour line to form the hedgerows that serve as the barrier and entrap the sediment and by the time it converts sloping land to terrace land.

•It is a proven technology for controlling soil erosion in the mountainous region.

•Timely pruning of contour hedgerows is practiced. Pruned foliage, branches, and other parts are used as fodder for livestock and as fertilizer for field and forage crops.

Ten Steps of Salt

SALT is an improvement over existing technologies. It is a simple, effective method of farming uplands, without losing topsoil to erosion (MBRLC 1988). It consists of the following ten basic steps:

1. Making the A-frame: The A-frame is a simple device for laying out contour lines across the slope. It is made of a carpenter level and three wooden or bamboo poles nailed or tied together in the shape of a capital letter A with a base about 90 centimeters wide. A carpenter's level is mounted on the crossbar.

2. Determining the contour lines: One leg of the A-frame is planted on the ground, and the other leg is swung until the carpenter's level shows that both legs are touching the ground on the same level. A helper drives a stake beside the frame's rear (first) leg. The process is repeated across the field. The contour lines should be spaced 4 5 m apart.

3. Cultivating the contour lines: One-meter strips along the contour lines should be plowed and harrowed to prepare for planting. The stakes serve as a guide during plowing.

4. Planting seeds of different nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs: Along each prepared contour line, two furrows should be laid out. Two to three seeds are planted per hill, with a distance of 12 centimeters between hills. The seeds should be covered firmly with soil. When the hedgerows are fully grown, they hold the soil and serve as a source of fertilizer. Examples of suitable hedgerow species are Flemingia macrophylla (syn. congesta), Desmodium rensonii, Calliandra calothyrsus, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena diversifolia, and L. leucocephala (see Appendix).

5. Cultivating alternate strips: The space between the rows of nitrogen-fixing trees on which the crops are to be planted is called a strip or alley. Cultivation is done on alternate strips (strips 2, 4, 6, and so on). Alternate cultivation prevents erosion because the unplowed strips will hold the soil in place.

6. Planting permanent crops: Permanent crops such as coffee, cacao, banana, citrus, and others of the same height may be planted when the nitrogen-fixing species are sown. Only the spots for planting, however, are cleared and dug, and later only ring weeding is employed until the hedgerows are large enough to hold the soil in place. Permanent crops are planted in every third strip. Tall crops should be planted at the bottom of the farm while short ones are planted at the top.

7. Planting short-term crops: Short and medium-term income-producing crops (pineapple, ginger, taro, sweet potato, peanut, mungbean, melon, sorghum, corn, upland rice, etc.) should be planted between the strips of permanent crops as a source of food and regular income while farmers are waiting for the permanent crops to bear fruit.

8. Trimming of nitrogen-fixing trees: Every 30 to 45 days, the growing hedgerows are cut to a height of 1.0 to 1.5 m from the ground. The cut leaves and twigs should be piled on the soil around the crops, where they serve as an excellent organic fertilizer. In this way, only a minimal amount of commercial fertilizer (about 1/4 of the total fertilizer requirements) is necessary.

9. Practicing crop rotation: A good way of rotating is to plant cereals such as corn or upland rice, tubers, and other crops on strips where legumes were planted previously, and vice versa. This practice will help maintain the fertility and good condition of the soil. Other management practices in crop growing, such as weeding and pest control should be carried out regularly.

10. Building green terraces: To enrich the soil and effectively control erosion, organic materials such as straw, stalks, twigs, branches and leaves, and also rocks and stones, are piled at the base of the rows of nitrogen-fixing trees. As the years go by, strong, permanent terraces will be formed which will anchor the precious soil in its right place.

Different systems/types of SALT technology

1.SALT-1: (Sloping Agriculture Land Technology) This model focuses mainly on food crop production; it is simple, applicable, low cost, but effective agroforestry in a ratio of 75:25. Based on the experiences of MBRLC/ARLDF, this technology decreases erosion substantially compared to the traditional, upland farming management practices. In addition, it increases crop yield 5-6 fold.

2. SALT 2: (Simple Agro-Livestock Land Technology) is a small, livestock-based agroforestry system (preferably with dairy goats) and has a land use of 40% for agriculture, 20% for forestry, and 40% for livestock. As in a conventional SALT project, hedgerows of different nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs are established on the contour lines. The manure from the animals is utilized as fertilizer both for food and forage crops.

3. SALT : (Sustainable Agro-forest Land Technology) is a cropping system in which a farmer can incorporate food production, fruit production, and forest trees that can be marketed. The farmer first develops a conventional SALT project to produce food for his family and possibly for livestock. On another portion of land, he can plant fruit trees such as rambutan, durian, and lanzones between the contour lines. The plants in the hedgerows should be cut and piled around the fruit trees for fertilizer and soil conservation purposes. A small forest of about 1 ha will be developed in which trees of different species are grown for short-range production of firewood and charcoal. Other species that would produce wood and building materials may be grown for medium and long-range production. In some areas where the soil is too steep for row crops, contour lines may be established two or three meters apart and planted with Flemingia or some other suitable hedgerow species. In between the hedgerows, coffee, cacao, calamansi or other permanent crops could be planted.

SALT 4: (Small Agro Fruit Livelihood Technology) is based on a half-hectare piece of sloping land with two-thirds of it developed in fruit trees and one-third intended for food crops. Hedgerows of different nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs are planted along the contours of the farm.

 

Table: Land use characteristics of different SALT systems

Sloping Agriculture Land Technology Benefits

SALT is the proven technology of upland farming. It has many advantages over the conventional farming practices. The following are the main benefits of Sloping Agricultural Land Technology:

• Sloping Agriculture Land Technology is a simple technology. There is no need for expertise. Any farmer can easily learn to make a contour line by using A frame.

• Low cost method of upland farming.

• It technology helps to maintain the soil structure.

• This technology is best suited for resource poor farmers. Farmers with few tools, little capital and with little formal education in agriculture can easily adopt this technology.

• By preventing soil erosion and retaining moisture, contour farming boosts productivity.

• Planting of Nitrogen fixing trees helps to replenish soil nutrients and ultimately boost up productivity.

• Since we cultivate permanent crops, short and medium term crops in the strips, so crop produce can be obtained year round.

• This technology enables farmers to cultivate varieties of crop at a time.

• The trees and shrubs can be harvested to obtain firewood.

• It can easily revert back to forest land if left unfarmed.

• This technology is applicable to at least 50 percent of hillside farms.

• As the farming technologies adopted by this method are in harmony with the Asian beliefs, it is a culturally accepted method of farming.

• This technology gives priority to food production.

• It is economically feasible.

• It is ecologically sound.

• This technology is efficient for food crop production.

Sloping Agriculture Land Technology Disadvantages

In addition to its many advantages, this technology also has a few disadvantages. The following are the few disadvantages of Sloping Agricultural Land Technology:

• It is a labour-intensive technology. Activities like contour preparation, plantation etc. require much labor.

• SALT hedgerows occupy significant cropping areas.

• Hedgerows need to be protected from grazing. It too requires maintenance.

• Hedgerows may act as hosts to many pests.

Conclusion

Sloping Agricultural Land Technology is a proven technology for hill farming. SALT incorporates soil conservation measures and food production in just one setting. This technology is based on growing the fast-growing perennial nitrogen-fixing trees and the stripes between them were used to cultivate many short and medium-duration food crops or forage crops. The original SALT technology originated in the Philippines in 1971. This was developed by the Asian Rural Life Development Foundation. However, the original idea has been modified as per requirement and different types of Soping Agriculture Land Technology have been developed. There will not be one system for all the farmers. Based on the requirement of farmers, till now four types of of this technique have been developed. There are four types of land. This technology adopts ten steps for developing sustainable farming methods. These steps include making an A-frame, locating and marking the contour line, contour line preparation, planting nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, cultivating alternate strips, planting permanent crops, planting short and medium-term crops, trimming nitrogen fixing trees, practicing crop rotation, and building green terraces. This technology is ecologically sound, economically viable, culturally acceptable, and easier to adopt and is gaining popularity in hill farming.

source :

https://guide2agriculture.com/sloping-agriculture-land-technology-salt/